Learning Difficulties: Conditions

Dyslexia

Specific Learning Difficulty ( including dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia)
Lindsay Peer of the British Dyslexia Association describes dyslexia / specific learning difficulty as follows:
“Dyslexia is best described as a combination of abilities and difficulties which affect the learning process in one or more of reading, spelling, writing and sometimes numeracy / language. Accompanying weaknesses may be identified in areas of speed of processing, short-term memory, sequencing, auditory and / or visual perception, spoken language and motor skills. Some children have outstanding creative skills, others have strong oral skills. Whilst others have no outstanding talents they all have strengths. Dyslexia occurs despite normal intellectual ability and conventional teaching; it is independent of socio-economic or language background.”

D. Harry Chasty’s definition is “Specific learning difficulties / dyslexia are organising or learning difficulties which restrict the student’s competencies in information processing, in fine motor control and working memory, so causing limitations in some or all of speech, reading, spelling, writing, essay writing, numeracy and behavior". This definition was accepted as an appropriate base for further research and development by the group representing all Member States, which met as ‘Action for Dyslexia’ at the European Parliament in 1994.

• Persistent factors in dyslexia, which can appear from a young age, and still be noticeable when the dyslexic child leaves school
  

  obvious “good” and “bad” days, for no apparent reason
  confusion between directional words, e.g. up/down, in/out
  difficulty with sequence e.g. colored bead sequence, days of the week, numbers
  family history of dyslexia / reading difficulty
  Non- language indicators include poor confidence and self-esteem, and having areas of strength as well as weaknesses.

• About dyscalculia, dysgraphia and dysphasia
  
  Dyscalculia
  A theoretical term for the specific disruption of numeracy skills. In practice this is seldom found in isolation. The term dysnumerate is also used. Specific dyscalculia is usually neurological in origin and is often associated with dysphasia
  
  Dysgraphia
  Specific difficulty in writing – usually neurological in origin, and normally associated with dysphasia.
  
  Dysphasia
  Partial loss of spoken language skills - usually due to brain damage. (N.B. developmental dysphasia is a rare congenital language difficulty.)

Dyspraxia

Dr. Madeleine Portwood describes dyspraxia as follows :

Dyspraxia can be defined as 'motor difficulties caused by perceptual problems, especially visual-motor and kinesthetic-motor difficulties'.

Dyspraxia - according to research - affects up to one in 20 children with boys identified four times more frequently than girls. It would therefore seem reasonable to suppose that there is at least one sufferer in each class at school.

The theory outlined by Gerald Edelman in 1992 suggests that the condition is caused by the failure of the neurons in the brain to develop correctly. This failure of the neurons to form adequate connections means that the brain takes longer to process information and there is a greater likelihood of the brain losing the suggestion and the child therefore failing to respond to requests given to him.

Dyspraxia is a developmental condition, that is, there are factors which are evident virtually from birth. The incidence of dyspraxia occurring with other developmental disorders (co-morbidity) - dyslexia, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autistic spectrum behaviors - is high.

There are many instances when the major presenting difficulties, usually inattention, inability to complete work, social isolation and behavior problems, ‘mask’ the underlying cause.

Many of the acknowledged presenting problems are common to both:

• delayed acquisition of language
  
• poor concentration
  
• inability to follow instructions
  
• miss-match between perceived ability and ability to record information on paper
  
• co-ordination difficulties
  
• food allergies ( particularly in relation to milk products)
  

There is a great overlap between the presenting problems of dyslexia and dyspraxia, which is hardly surprising when the neurological basis for both is the same, but diagnosis is dependent on which area of the brain is affected.

For a more detailed description of developmental dyspraxia, please see the webpage of The Dyspraxia Foundation, http://www.emmbrook.demon.co.uk/dysprax/what.htm or Dr. Madeleine Portwood's website http://web.ukonline.co.uk/madeleine.portwood

Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder

The ADD Information Service defines Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder as follows: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) is characterised by developmentally inappropriate impulsivity, attention, and in some cases, hyperactivity. AD/HD is a neurobiological disability that affects three-to-five percent of school-age children and approximately two-to-four percent of adults. Although individuals with AD/HD can be very successful in life, without identification and proper treatment AD/HD can have serious consequences, including school failure, depression, conduct disorder, failed relationships, and substance abuse. Early identification and treatment increase the likelihood of positive long-term outcomes.

There are three primary subtypes:

AD/HD primarily inattentive type: (AD/HD-I)

• Fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes.
  
• Has difficulty sustaining attention.
  
• Does not appear to listen.
  
• Struggles to follow through on instructions.
  
• Has difficulty with organization.
  
• Avoids or dislikes tasks requiring sustained mental effort.
  
• Is easily distracted.
  
• Is forgetful in daily activities.

AD/HD primarily hyperactive/impulsive type more details

• Fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in chair.
  
• Has difficulty remaining seated.
  
• Runs about or climbs excessively.
  
• Difficulty engaging in activities quietly.
  
• Acts as if driven by a motor.
  
• Talks excessively.
  
• Blurts out answers before questions have been completed.
  
• Difficulty waiting or taking turns.
  
• Interrupts or intrudes upon others.
  

(AD/HD-HI) AD/HD combined type: (AD/HD-C)

Individual meets both sets of attention and hyperactive/impulsive criteria.

Asperger’s Syndrome

The following description comes from articles by Paul Smith, Rosemary Walker and Andrew Osmond. Asperger's Syndrome, also known as Asperger's Disorder or Autistic Psychopathy, is a Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD) characterized by severe and sustained impairment in social interaction, development of restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities. These characteristics result in clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

In contrast to Autistic disorder (Autism), there are no clinically significant delays in language or cognition or self help skills or in adaptive behavior, other than social interaction.

Asperger’s Syndrome sufferers do no tend to have the severe language or learning difficulties associated with autism. In fact many Asperger's have excellent academic records. But they tend to become frustrated by their inability to conform to ‘normal’ standards, and social isolation may result, with attendant feelings of intolerance, antagonism and hostility. They have trouble reading other people’s expressions and body-language, appearing rude or gauche. Their own language and gestures, meanwhile, seem stilted and unnatural.

For a detailed description of Asperger Syndrome, please see the website of OASIS, Online Asperger Syndrome Information and Support http://www.udel.edu/bkirby/asperger/

Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD)

A diagnosis of autism is made when an individual displays 8 of 16 symptoms listed across three major areas: social interaction, communication, and restricted repertoire of activities and interests. When a child displays similar behaviors but with fewer than 8 of the 16 symptoms, professionals may make a diagnosis of Pervasive Developmental Disorder – Not Otherwise Specified.

Autism is one of the disabilities specifically defined in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the USA. IDEA defines autism as “a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, usually evident before age three, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences.”

Autism and PDD occur in approximately 10 to 15 per 10,000 births these disorders are four times more common in boys than in girls.

Definitions of terms and consequences for education

• Dyslexia
• Dyspraxia
• Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder
• Asperger’s Syndrome
• Autism / PDD
• Epilepsy

Epilepsy

The following information comes from the Epilepsy Association of Scotland.

Epilepsy is a condition that affects one in every 130 people and means that a person has a tendency to have recurring seizures. It occurs in people of both sexes and cuts across all racial, social, age and ability groups. The spectrum of epilepsy is very wide. It includes people whose seizures have been completely controlled and who experience no side-effects from their treatment, people who have occasional seizures, and people who have very difficult to control epilepsy, whose seizures are frequent and severe and who sometimes have other disabling conditions. It is diagnosed most commonly in childhood and early adolescence but can develop in anyone at any age. It can also develop in the older person as a consequence of such factors as strokes, heart attacks; diminishing supplies of blood to the brain etc.

Epilepsy is generally divided into two main categories called generalized and partial.

Generalized epilepsy involves a disturbance in the brain’s normal electrical activity affecting the whole brain, and during which there will be some loss of consciousness. However there are several different kinds of seizure patterns in this generalized category with distinct features.

Partial epilepsy involves a disturbance in the brain’s normal electrical activity confined to a local area of the brain which causes either simple partial seizures or complex partial seizures (sometimes called temporal lobe seizures.)

In some cases partial epilepsy may develop into generalized epilepsy if the disturbance spreads from the localized area to affect the whole brain.

One type of seizure is known as ‘absence seizures’. These occur mostly in childhood or early adolescence, and involve a momentary loss of consciousness which can look like a very brief daydream and often happens so quickly that an onlooker may note nothing different. The person may or may not be aware that the seizure has happened.

Various reasons for which epilepsy may adversely affect the attainment of the child at school :

BIOLOGICAL

• possible underlying brain damage
  
• age of onset of epilepsy
  
• brain dysfunction
  
• anti-epileptic drug effects
  
• male sex (disturbed behavior more common in boys than girls)
  

PSYCHOLOGICAL

• undermining of the individual’s idea of self ( very low self- esteem and self-image)
  

SOCIAL

• attitude of others to individual
  
• family and friends
  
• peers (peer group may tease)
  
• teachers
  

PHARMACOLOGICAL

• the fact of having to take anti-epileptic drugs
  
• side effects of drugs
  
• effects of changes in drugs and drug routines

Why your child may underachieve at school because of :

• time off school
  
• after-effects of seizures
  
• adverse side-effects of medication, which may affect:
  - learning capacity - concentration and memory
  - alertness - over activity and drowsiness
  - motor capacity - hand/eye/speech co-ordination
  - general well-being - unsteadiness, vomiting
  
  
• possible limited curriculum - builds inhibitions and feelings of being different/neglected/isolated
  
• triggers within school - stress generated by change, boredom, inactivity, light sources
  
• reactions of peer groups and teachers to - the fact of epilepsy, taking drugs, seizures